1832

Palmerston: British reforms have given the monarchy greater solidity by 'incorporating with the governing portion of the community a vast body of the middle classes who have hitherto been excluded'.

1832 Reform Act. After the Bill was voted down in the Lords, there were riots in many parts of the country. Amid great tension the king agreed to create new peers to push the Bill through, Wellington and supporters caved in. British electorate 440,000 before, the Act added 216,000 to make it about 5% of the population (Evans).

Hambach festival, a protest for civil rights and national unity against the Metternich system, established black-red-gold as the symbol of democratic Germany. 'Liberalism has given way to radicalism' Metternich wrote to his Ambassador in Berlin. It was reported to Palmerston (6 June) that Metternich was 'in a state of much agitation... Prince Metternich begged me to remark to Your Lordship that the events which are passing in Germany cannot be safely judged by an English standard — that if ever you should see such a meeting in Vienna or a charivari [parade] given under my windows, be assured that the Austrian Empire is at an end... He thinks that the Mass of the People and the higher ranks of the Bourgeoisie are still attached to Monarchical Government and [are] Enemies to this agitation, but that the Press, the Professors, the Students and Employés who are exorbitantly numerous are its active promoters.'

Metternich persuaded the Bund to introduce the 'Six Articles' sharpening censorship, banning parties and demonstrations, and more. Across Germany liberal moves were suppressed and reversed. Some liberal writers were imprisoned, others (e.g Heinrich Heine) were exiled.